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conjunctions  (Re-watch)- https://www.coursera.org/learn/grammar-punctuation/lecture/Dg8je/conjunctions-video-lecture

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Courses in this specialization are good https://www.coursera.org/specializations/academic-english
https://www.coursera.org/specializations/intermediate-grammar .

Proper Noun

What is a Proper Noun?

Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence. Here, we’ll take a closer look at proper nouns, provide proper noun examples, and help you learn how to use a proper noun the right way.

Remember that all nouns are words naming people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Every noun can be further classified as either common or proper. The distinction is very easy to make once you see some examples and come up with a few of your own.

Proper Noun Examples

In the following sentences, proper noun examples are compared with common nouns. Notice that the proper nouns are specific and unique, while the common nouns are much more general in nature.

1. Common noun: I want to be a writer.
   Proper noun: Agatha Christie wrote many books.
2. Common noun: I’d like to adopt a cat.
   Proper noun: Cleopatra is the cutest kitten ever.
3. Common noun: Would you like a cookie?
   Proper noun: I’m craving Oreos.
4. Common noun: Let’s go to the city.
   Proper noun: Let’s go to San Francisco.
5. Common noun: My teacher starts work before sunup.
   Proper noun: Mr. Bell seems to understand what students need.
6. Common noun: I think that’s a planet, not a star.
   Proper noun: I can see Jupiter tonight.
7. Common noun: He’s always hanging out with his girlfriend.
   Proper noun: He never goes anywhere without Sarah.
8. Common noun: There are a lot of important documents in the archives.
   Proper noun: There are many important documents at The Library of Congress.

How to Use Proper Nouns

It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you know what they are. Simply place them in your sentences as you would common nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them. Here are some examples to help you get started.

• Brett had hoped for an easy teacher for his algebra class, but he got Ms. Boggs, whose unreasonable demands and short temper made the semester unbearable.
  → Teacher is a common noun. Ms. Boggs is a proper noun.
• Gloria had a craving, and not just any cookie would do. She went to the store and bought a box of Oreos.
  → Cookie is a common noun. Oreos is a proper noun.
• We wanted to try a new restaurant, so we went to Taste of Thai.
  → Restaurant is a common noun. Taste of Thai is a proper noun.

Conjunctions

They may be small words, but conjunctions are highly functional and very important for constructing sentences. As you can see in the first sentence the coordinating conjunction “and” was used to link different parts of the sentence. This is the main job of conjunctions. Basically, conjunctions join words, phrases and clauses together.

Conjunctions Are Linking Words

The chart shown is a list of some of the most commonly-used conjunctions.

YourDictionary also has articles describing each of the different types of conjunctions:

• Coordinating conjunctions
• Subordinating conjunctions
• Correlative conjunctions

Remember, the main job of a conjunction is to link together different parts of a sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are what come to most people’s minds when they hear the word “conjunction,” and they do exactly what their name implies – they make things go together. They can join together words, phrases and independent clauses. If you’ve ever heard the classic Schoolhouse Rock song, “Conjunction Junction,” then you are already somewhat familiar with coordinating conjunctions.

The Coordinating Conjunctions

The English language has seven coordinating conjunctions, and they’re easy to remember if you can just remember FANBOYS:

·         For - Explains reason or purpose (just like “because”) 
I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch the ducks on the lake.

·         And - Adds one thing to another 
I go to the park every Sunday to watch the ducks on the lake and the shirtless men playing soccer.

·         Nor - Used to present an alternative negative idea to an already stated negative idea
I don’t go for the fresh air nor really for the ducks. Honestly, I just like the soccer.

·         But - Shows contrast 
The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter, but it’s better in the heat of summer.

·         Or - Presents an alternative or a choice 
The men play on teams: shirts or skins.

·         Yet - Introduces a contrasting idea that follows the preceding idea logically (similar to “but”)
I always take a book to read, yet I never seem to turn a single page.

·         So - Indicates effect, result or consequence
I’ve started dating one of the soccer players, so now I have an excuse to watch the game each week.

Using Commas with Coordinating Conjunctions

You’ll notice that in the example sentences, some of the coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma while others are not. There is a very simple reason for this.

If a coordinating conjunction is joining together two independent clauses (things that could feasibly stand alone as complete sentences), it needs to have a comma with it.

Example: The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter (independent clause) + it’s better in the heat of summer (independent clause) – Because these are two independent clauses, they must be joined together by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

If the conjunction is connecting a phrase with two independent clauses, the two independent clauses should be separated with the coordinating conjunction "and." If a phrase is added to a short independent clause it does not need a comma.

Example: I go to the park every Sunday (independent clause), and I watch the ducks on the lake (independent clause) and the shirtless men playing soccer (phrase).

Some people will tell you that in a list of three or more items or phrases, you need a comma and a conjunction before the final item or phrase. The truth is, you don’t have to use a comma there, but you can if you want to, and if you think a comma will clear up any possible confusion, go ahead and use it. Otherwise, it’s really not necessary (see Comma Rules for more information on comma usage). The only coordinating conjunction that doesn’t seem to be able to connect sentence fragments (words and phrases) is “for.” When “for” comes between words or short phrases, it is typically acting not as a coordinating conjunction, but as a preposition.

Can You Begin a Sentence With a Coordinating Conjunction?

Another rule you’ll often hear is that it is incorrect to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, and while this is a good rule of thumb, it is not a hard and fast law of grammar. You should try to limit how often you begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, but it is not incorrect to do so, especially if it will break up a particularly long sentence into more easily understandable chunks. Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest of all the conjunctions to recognize and master, and knowing how they work will improve the quality and complexity of your writing, so if that’s what you’re after, you are now fully equipped! Happy writing!

Subordinating Conjunctions

Out of the three different kinds of conjunctions (coordinating, correlative and subordinating), subordinating conjunctions are the most difficult to recognize, but they are not that hard to master. In fact, you probably use them all the time without even noticing, but let’s take a closer look at them to see what’s going on.

A subordinating conjunction always introduces a dependent clause, tying it to an independent clause. The clauses can go in any order; that is, the independent or the dependent clause can come first in the sentence, but in either order, the first word of the dependent (or subordinate) clause will be the subordinating conjunction.

Using Subordinating Conjunctions

In English, there are lots of subordinating conjunctions, but the most common ones, along with a few examples of how subordinating conjunctions are used, are as follows:

·         after - “Your heart will break like mine, and you’ll want only me after you’ve gone” (Ella Fitzgerald).

·         although - “Although I’ve been here before, he’s just too hard to ignore” (Amy Winehouse).

·         as - “As I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I take a look at my life and realize there’s nothing left” (Coolio).

·         as long as - “I don’t care who you are, where you’re from or what you did as long as you love me” (Backstreet Boys).

·         because - “I’m everything I am because you loved me” (Celine Dion).

·         before - “Just call me angel of the morning, angel. Just touch my cheek before you leave me, baby” (Juice Newton).

·         even if - “Even if the sky is falling down, you’ll be my only” (Jay Sean).

·         if - “If you leave me now, you’ll take away the biggest part of me” (Peter Cetera/Chicago).

·         once - “Once you pop, you can’t stop” (Pringles commercials).

·         now that - “Baby, now that I’ve found you, I won’t let you go” (Tony Macaulay/John MacLeod).

·         since - “I guess I’ll never be the same since I fell for you” (B.B. King).

·         though - “Walk on through the wind, walk on through the rain though your dreams be tossed and blown” (Rodgers and Hammerstein).

·         unless - “We’re never going to survive unless we get a little crazy” (Seal).

·         until - “[You] don’t know what you’ve got ‘til it’s gone” (Cinderella).

·         when - “When I see you smile, I can face the world” (Bad English).

·         where - “There’s a light burning bright, showing me the way, but I know where I’ve been” (Scott Wittman).

·         while - “I look at the world, and I notice it’s turning while my guitar gently weeps” (The Beatles).

You’ll notice that when a dependent clause precedes an independent clause, there is a comma between the two, indicating the beginning of the main (independent) clause. However, when the independent clause comes first, there is no need to separate the two clauses with a comma.

Subordinating Conjunctions vs. Relative Pronouns

There is another group of words that sometimes introduce dependent clauses. These are called relative pronouns, and although they look and act very similar to coordinating conjunctions, they are different. True relative pronouns are “that,” “who” and “which,” and they differ from subordinating conjunctions in that they act as the subject of a dependent clause whereas subordinating conjunctions do not. Subordinating conjunctions are followed by the subject of their clause. Consider a few examples:

·         John is the guy who came over for dinner last week. - Here, we have two clauses. “John is the guy” is the main clause, and “who came over for dinner last week” gives us more information about John. The word “who” acts as the subject of the dependent clause.

·         We talked about music and movies while we ate. - Again, we have two clauses. “We talked about music and movies” is the main clause, and “while we ate” gives us more information. However, in this example, both clauses have the subject “we.” The word “while” does not act as the subject of the dependent clause.

Now that you know what subordinating conjunctions are, you can continue to use them, but now with new purpose and vigor!

Correlative Conjunctions

You know what a conjunction is, you’ve mastered coordinating conjunctions, and you’re pretty sure you understand subordinating conjunctions; there’s only one more hurdle now between you and total conjunction domination: correlative conjunctions. Well fear not, Grammar Conquistador. You are about to be victorious.

What Are Correlative Conjunctions?

Correlative conjunctions are sort of like tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs, and you have to use both of them in different places in a sentence to make them work. They get their name from the fact that they work together (co-) and relate one sentence element to another. Correlative conjunctions include pairs like “both/and,” “whether/or,” “either/or,” “neither/nor,” “not/but” and “not only/but also.”

·         I want either the cheesecake or the frozen hot chocolate.

·         I’ll have both the cheesecake and the frozen hot chocolate.

·         I didn’t know whether you’d want the cheesecake or the frozen hot chocolate, so I got you both.

·         Oh, you want neither the cheesecake nor the frozen hot chocolate? No problem.

·         I’ll eat them both - not only the cheesecake but also the frozen hot chocolate.

·         I see you’re in the mood not for dessert but appetizers. I’ll help you with those too.

Here are some more pairs of correlative conjunctions:

·         as/as - Bowling isn’t as fun as skeet shooting.

·         such/that - Such was the nature of their relationship that they never would have made it even if they’d wanted to.

·         scarcely/when - I had scarcely walked in the door when I got the call and had to run right back out again.

·         as many/as - There are as many curtains as there are windows.

·         no sooner/than - I’d no sooner lie to you than strangle a puppy.

·         rather/than - She’d rather play the drums than sing.

Correlative Conjunctions Hook It Up

Correlative conjunctions are more similar to coordinating conjunctions than to subordinating conjunctions in that the sentence fragments they connect are fairly equal. Subordinating conjunctions connect independent and dependent clauses, which have totally different functions. Coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions, on the other hand, connect words and phrases that carry equal weight in the sentence.

For example, “both/and” connects either two subjects or two objects:

·         Both Jon and Lauren enjoyed the movie. (subjects)

·         Jon enjoyed both the movie and the popcorn. (objects)

“As/as” compares nouns using an adjective or an adverb:

·         Peter is as tall as Jeff.

·         A lion can’t run as fast as a cheetah.

“Not only/but also” can connect nouns or entire clauses:

·         I’m going not only to the concert, but also backstage!

·         Not only will I see your ten, but I’ll also raise you twenty.

Congratulations! You now know everything there is to know about correlative conjunctions. You are now ready to take on the world!

Conditional Statements - Past Conditional

Past Real Conditional

FORM

[If / When ... Simple Past ..., ... Simple Past ...]

[... Simple Past... if / when ... Simple Past ...]

USE

The Past Real Conditional describes what you used to do in particular real-life situations. It suggests that your habits have changed and you do not usually do these things today.

Examples:

• If I went to a friend's house for dinner, I usually took a bottle of wine or some flowers. I don't do that anymore.
• When I had a day off from work, I often went to the beach. Now, I never get time off.
• If the weather was nice, she often walked to work. Now, she usually drives.
• Jerry always helped me with my homework when he had time. But he doesn't do that anymore.
• A: What did you usually do when it rained?
  B: I usually stayed at home.

IMPORTANT Used to

The form "used to" expresses the idea that something was an old habit that stopped in the past. This form is commonly used in Past Real Conditional sentences to emphasize that something was a habit. The examples below have the same meaning as the examples above.

Examples:

• If I went to a friend's house for dinner, I used to take a bottle of wine or some flowers. I don't do that anymore.
• When I had a day off from work, I used to go to the beach. Now, I never get time off.
• If the weather was nice, she used to walk to work. Now, she usually drives.
• Jerry used to help me with my homework when he had time. But he doesn't do that anymore.
• A: What did you usually do when it rained?
  B: I used to stay at home.

IMPORTANT If / When

Both "if" and "when" are used in the Past Real Conditional. Using "if" suggests that something happened less frequently. Using "when" suggests that something happened regularly.

Examples:

• When I had a day off from work, I usually went to the beach.
  I regularly had days off from work.
• If I had a day off from work, I usually went to the beach.
  I rarely had days off from work.

Past Unreal Conditional

FORM

[If ... Past Perfect ..., ... would have + past participle ... ]

[... would have + past participle ... if ... Past Perfect ...]

USE

The Past Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. You can describe what you would have done differently or how something could have happened differently if circumstances had been different.

Examples:

• If I had owned a car, I would have driven to work. But I didn't own one, so I took the bus.
• She would have traveled around the world if she had had more money. But she didn't have much money, so she never traveled.
• I would have read more as a child if I hadn't watched so much TV. Unfortunately, I did watch a lot of TV, so I never read for entertainment.
• Mary would have gotten the job and moved to Japan if she had studied Japanese in school instead of French.
• If Jack had worked harder, he would have earned more money. Unfortunately, he was lazy and he didn't earn much.
• A: What would you have done if you had won the lottery last week?
  B: I would have bought a house.
• A: What city would you have chosen if you had decided to move to the United States?
  B: I would have chosen Seattle.

IMPORTANT Only use "If"

Only the word "if" is used with the Past Unreal Conditional because you are discussing imaginary situations. "When" cannot be used.

Examples:

• I would have bought that computer when it had been cheaper. Not Correct
• I would have bought that computer if it had been cheaper. Correct

EXCEPTION Conditional with Modal Verbs

There are some special conditional forms for modal verbs in English:

would have + can = could have

would have + shall = should have

would have + may = might have

The words "can," "shall" and "may" cannot be used with "would have." Instead, they must be used in these special forms.

Examples:

• If I had gone to Egypt, I could have learned Arabic.
• If she had had time, she might have gone to the party.

The words "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include Conditional, so you cannot combine them with "would have."

Examples:

• If I had had more time, I could have exercised after work.
• If he had invited you, you might have gone.

conditional sentences - Future Conditional

Future Real Conditional

FORM 

[If / When ... Simple Present ..., ... Simple Future ...]

[... Simple Future ... if / when ... Simple Present ...]

Notice that there is no future in the if- or when-clause.

USE

The Future Real Conditional describes what you think you will do in a specific situation in the future. It is different from other Real Conditional forms because, unlike the present or the past, you do not know what will happen in the future. Although this form is called "real", you are usually imagining or guessing about the future. It is called "real" because it is still possible that the action might occur in the future. Carefully study the following examples and compare them to the Future Unreal Conditional examples further down the page.

Examples:

• If I go to my friend's house for dinner tonight, I will take a bottle of wine or some flowers.
  I am still not sure if I will go to his house or not.
• When I have a day off from work, I am going to go to the beach.
  I have to wait until I have a day off.
• If the weather is nice, she is going to walk to work.
  It depends on the weather.
• Jerry will help me with my homework when he has time.
  I have to wait until he has time.
• I am going to read if there is nothing on TV.
  It depends on the TV schedule.
• A: What are you going to do if it rains?
  B: I am going to stay at home.

IMPORTANT If / When

Both "if" and "when" are used in the Future Real Conditional, but the use is different from other Real Conditional forms. In the Future Real Conditional, "if" suggests that you do not know if something will happen or not. "When" suggests that something will definitely happen at some point; we are simply waiting for it to occur. Notice also that the Simple Future is not used in if-clauses or when-clauses.

Examples:

• When you call me, I will give you the address.
  You are going to call me later, and at that time, I will give you the address.
• If you call me, I will give you the address.
  If you want the address, you can call me.

Future Unreal Conditional

FORM 1 (Most Common Form)

[If ... Simple Past ..., ... would + verb ...]

[... would + verb ... if ... Simple Past ...]

Notice that this form looks the same as Present Unreal Conditional.

USE

The Future Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the future. It is not as common as the Future Real Conditional because English speakers often leave open the possibility that anything MIGHT happen in the future. It is only used when a speaker needs to emphasize that something is impossible. Because this form looks like Present Unreal Conditional, many native speakers prefer Form 2 described below.

Examples:

• If I had a day off from work next week, I would go to the beach.
  I don't have a day off from work.
• I am busy next week. If I had time, I would come to your party.
  I can't come.
• Jerry would help me with my homework tomorrow if he didn't have to work.
  He does have to work tomorrow.

FORM 2

[If ... were + present participle ..., ... would be + present participle ...]

[... would be + present participle ... if ... were + present participle ...]

USE

Form 2 of the Future Unreal Conditional is also used to talk about imaginary situations in the future. Native speakers often prefer this form over Form 1 to emphasize that the conditional form is in the future rather than the present. Also notice in the examples below that this form can be used in the if-clause, the result, or both parts of the sentence.

Examples:

• If I were going to Fiji next week, I would be taking my scuba diving gear with me. In if-clause and result
  I am not going to go to Fiji and I am not going to take my scuba gear with me.
• If I were not visiting my grandmother tomorrow, I would help you study. In if-clause
  I am going to visit my grandmother tomorrow.
• I am busy next week. If I had time, I would be coming to your party. In result
  I am not going to come to your party.

FORM 3

[If ... were going to + verb ..., ... would be + present participle ...]

[... would be + present participle ... if ... were going to + verb ...]

USE

Form 3 of the Future Unreal Conditional is a variation of Form 2 which is also used to talk about imaginary situations in the future. Notice that this form is only different from Form 2 in the if-clause. Native speakers use Form 3 to emphasize that the conditional form is a plan or prediction in the same way "be going to" is used to indicate a plan or prediction.

Examples:

• If I were going to go to Fiji next week, I would be taking my scuba diving gear with me.
  I am not going to go to Fiji and I am not going to take my scuba gear with me.
• If I were not going to visit my grandmother tomorrow, I would help you study.
  I am going to visit my grandmother tomorrow.

IMPORTANT Only use "If"

Only the word "if" is used with the Past Unreal Conditional because you are discussing imaginary situations. "When" cannot be used.

Examples:

• I would buy that computer tomorrow when it were cheaper. Not Correct
• I would buy that computer tomorrow if it were cheaper. Correct

EXCEPTION Conditional with Modal Verbs

There are some special conditional forms for modal verbs in English:

would + can = could

would + shall = should

would + may = might

The words "can," "shall" and "may" cannot be used with "would." Instead, they must be used in these special forms.

Examples:

• If I went to Egypt next year, I would can learn Arabic. Unfortunately, that's not possible. Not Correct
• If I went to Egypt next year, I could learn Arabic. Unfortunately, that's not possible. Correct

The words "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so you cannot combine them with "would."

Examples:

• If I didn't have to work tonight, I would could go to the fitness center. Not Correct
• If I didn't have to work tonight, I could go to the fitness center. Correct

Future Real Conditional vs. Future Unreal Conditional

To help you understand the difference between the Future Real Conditional and the Future Unreal Conditional, compare the examples below:

Examples:

• If you help me move tomorrow, I will buy you dinner. Future Real Conditional 
  I don't know if you can help me.
• If you helped me move tomorrow, I would buy you dinner. Future Unreal Conditional 
  You can't help me, or you don't want to help me.

Conditional Sentences - Present Conditional

Present Real Conditional

FORM

[If / When ... Simple Present ..., ... Simple Present ...]

[... Simple Present ... if / when ... Simple Present ...]

USE

The Present Real Conditional is used to talk about what you normally do in real-life situations.

Examples:

• If I go to a friend's house for dinner, I usually take a bottle of wine or some flowers.
• When I have a day off from work, I often go to the beach.
• If the weather is nice, she walks to work.
• Jerry helps me with my homework when he has time.
• I read if there is nothing on TV.
• A: What do you do when it rains?
  B: I stay at home.
• A: Where do you stay if you go to Sydney?
  B: I stay with my friends near the harbor.

IMPORTANT If / When

Both "if" and "when" are used in the Present Real Conditional. Using "if" suggests that something happens less frequently. Using "when" suggests that something happens regularly.

Examples:

• When I have a day off from work, I usually go to the beach.
  I regularly have days off from work.
• If I have a day off from work, I usually go to the beach.
  I rarely have days off from work.

Present Unreal Conditional

FORM

[If ... Simple Past ..., ... would + verb ...]

[... would + verb ... if ... Simple Past ...]

USE

The Present Unreal Conditional is used to talk about what you would generally do in imaginary situations.

Examples:

• If I owned a car, I would drive to work. But I don't own a car.
• She would travel around the world if she had more money. But she doesn't have much money.
• I would read more if I didn't watch so much TV.
• Mary would move to Japan if she spoke Japanese.
• If they worked harder, they would earn more money.
• A: What would you do if you won the lottery?
  B: I would buy a house.
• A: Where would you live if you moved to the U.S.?
  B: I would live in Seattle.

EXCEPTION If I were ...

In the Present Unreal Conditional, the form "was" is not considered grammatically correct. In written English or in testing situations, you should always use "were." However, in everyday conversation, "was" is often used.

Examples:

• If he were French, he would live in Paris.
• If she were rich, she would buy a yacht.
• I would play basketball if I were taller.
• I would buy that computer if it were cheaper.
• I would buy that computer if it was cheaper. Not Correct (But often said in conversation.)

IMPORTANT Only use "If"

Only the word "if" is used with the Present Unreal Conditional because you are discussing imaginary situations. "When" cannot be used.

Examples:

• I would buy that computer when it were cheaper. Not Correct
• I would buy that computer if it were cheaper. Correct

EXCEPTION Conditional with Modal Verbs

There are some special conditional forms for modal verbs in English:

would + can = could

would + shall = should

would + may = might

The words "can," "shall" and "may" cannot be used with "would." Instead, they must be used in these special forms.

Examples:

• If I went to Egypt, I would can learn Arabic. Not Correct
• If I went to Egypt, I could learn Arabic. Correct

• If she had time, she would may go to the party. Not Correct
• If she had time, she might go to the party. Correct

The words "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so you cannot combine them with "would."

Examples:

• If I had more time, I would could exercise after work. Not Correct
• If I had more time, I could exercise after work. Correct

• If he invited you, you really would should go. Not Correct
• If he invited you, you really should go. Correct

Articles - A/An/The

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. Most nouns in English are countable.

• I have two dogs.
• Sandra has three cars.
• Jessie has ten dollars.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are not counted in English. This usually has to do with the way English speakers think of these nouns. We often picture these nouns as a single concept or one big thing which is hard to divide. Many of these words are countable in other languages, but they ARE NOT countable in English. Generally, we do not use plural forms of these words; however some of these words do end in "s", so don't get confused.

• Mack drinks a lot of water.
• Cindy gives great advice.
• Paul enjoys politics. Ends with "s" but uncountable

Uncountable nouns tend to belong to one of the following categories:

Liquids and Gases	Solid and Granular Substances	Energy Words and Forces	Subjects	Grouped Concepts	Information and Abstract Concepts
water	wood	electricity	French	fruit	information
coffee	metal	sunshine	chemistry	money	advice
milk	cheese	radiation	economics	food	education
air	sand	heat	science	vocabulary	democracy
oxygen	rice	magnetism	math	news	intelligence

Uncountable Plurals               

Sometimes in English, we do use uncountable nouns in plural forms. This is most commonly done with liquids and substances. It usually takes on the meaning of "cups of", "bottles of" or "types of".

• We'll have two coffees. Cups of coffee
• I bought three waters. Bottles of water
• The company produces two leathers. Types of leather

Different Meanings

There are certain words which have multiple meanings. It is possible for one meaning to be countable and the other to be uncountable. Take for example the word "light":

• I couldn't see anything because there was no light. Uncountable noun
• The Christmas tree was covered with hundreds of lights. Countable noun

Generally, the rules are still the same. The first use of "light" is a form of energy. The second use of "light" means "small light bulbs", which are normal countable objects.

ARTICLES BASIC RULES –

The article A is used before singular, countable nouns which begin with consonant sounds. The article AN is used before singular, countable nouns which begin with vowel sounds. A and AN are called indefinite articles. "Indefinite" means "not specific".

Use A(AN) when you are talking about a thing in general, NOT a specific thing.  Examples:

• I need a phone. Not a specific phone, any phone
• Mark wants a bicycle. Not a particular bicycle, a bicycle in general
• Do you have a driver's license? In general

Use A(AN) when talking about a thing which is new, unknown, or introduced to a listener for the first time. Also use A(AN) when you are asking about the existence of something. Examples:

• I have a car. The car is being introduced for the first time.
• Tom is a teacher. This is new information to the listener.
• Is there a dictionary in your backpack? Asking about the existence of the dictionary

THE is called a definite article. "Definite" means "specific". Use THE when talking about something which is already known to the listener or which has been previously mentioned, introduced, or discussed.

• I have a cat. The cat is black.
• There is a book in my backpack. The book is very heavy.
• Do you know where I left the car keys? The listener knows which specific car keys you are talking about.
• Do you own a car? Is the car blue? You assume they do have a car after asking about it in the first sentence.
• Nobody lives on the Moon. The Moon is known to everyone.

IMPORTANT: You can use THE with both singular nouns and plural nouns.

• I saw a bears in Yellowstone National Park. Not Correct
• I saw bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct
• I saw the bear in Yellowstone National Park. Correct
• I saw the bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

Use THE with nouns modified by ranking or ordering expressions such as "the first", "the second", "the third", "the next", "the last", "the previous", "the following", "the penultimate", etc.

• This is the fifth day of our conference.
• I'll pay the next time we have dinner.
• Don't forget the following rule.

Do not use articles when generalizing about uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns.

Curiosity is a great trait. Uncountable

• Water is an important resource. Uncountable
• Vegetables are good for you. Plural countable

The expressions "a few" and "a little" mean "some" and express the idea that you have more than expected.

• He always carries a few dollars for emergencies.
• He had a little difficulty with his homework.
• She has a few friends who can help her move.

HOWEVER: The expressions "few" and "little" (without an article) mean "not much" and express the idea that you have less than expected.

• Unfortunately, I had little time to enjoy New York because I had to work so much.
• Sadly, he has few people in his life.
• They have little money, so their daughter cannot pay her tuition.

BUT REMEMBER: When the words "only" or "just" are used, "a few" and "a little" also emphasize the meaning "not much".

• Unfortunately, I only had a little time to enjoy New York because I had to work so much.
• Sadly, he just has a few people in his life.
• They only have a little money, so their daughter cannot pay her tuition.

THE can be used with plural family names to refer to the family as a group.

• The Robinsons love to vacation in Florida.
• The Shinoharas are originally from Japan.
• My brother lives next door to the Jacksons.

MORE PARTICULAL \ NO USE OF ARTICLES

Article with illness –

Generally, articles are not used with the names of illnesses or diseases.

• Dr. Smith visits schools and universities to educate students on AIDS.
• Oncologists are doctors who specialize in treating cancer.
• There are several medications that can be used to treat malaria.

HOWEVER: There are some illnesses which require THE.

• the measles
• the flu
• the mumps
• the bubonic plague

MOREOVER: There are a few health conditions or illnesses which can be used with both A(AN) as well as THE and follow general article use. This category includes most aches, pains, growths, and attacks.

• a cold
• a heart attack
• a stroke
• a wart / tumor / growth / etc.
• a sore throat / sore back/ sore foot / etc.
• a headache / toothache / backache / etc.

REMEMBER: This last category follows general article use. Study the examples below

• John has a cold. The cold was pretty bad.
• Nancy had a heart attack. The heart attack seriously weakened her heart.
• Deb had a sore throat. The sore throat made it hard to talk.

Article with direction –

If a direction (north, west, southeast, left, right) directly follows a verb, do not use an article with the direction.

• We need to walk south.
• They drove north all day.
• At the stop sign, turn left and walk three blocks.

HOWEVER: If a direction follows a preposition, you must use THE.

• We need to walk to the south.
• Our house is in the north.
• The grocery store is on the right.

MOREOVER: Use THE with compass directions when referring to them as special geographic or cultural regions.

• We love the South.
• Have you ever visited the East?
• The West has better national parks.

Article with country name, ethnicity and language –

THE can be combined with certain adjectives to refer to a group of people such as "the blind", "the elderly", "the rich", "the French", "the Sioux", etc.

• He is elderly. Adjective
• The organization helps the elderly. Elderly people

REMEMBER: This is especially important in situations where nationalities or ethnic groups and their languages might be confused. In such situations, THE is used to specify that we are talking about the nationality or ethnic group rather than the language.

• I like French. Language
• I like the French. The French people

HOWEVER: When generalizing about nationalities or ethnic groups that end in "-ans", such as "Americans", "Mexicans", and "Hawaiians", THE is not usually used.

• Americans watch a lot of TV.
• Germans drink a lot of beer.

Do not use THE with the names of most countries unless the name contains a word such as "States", "Kingdom", "Republic", "Emirates", "Union", "Coast", etc.

• I love Italy.
• John used to live in Japan.
• He lives in the United States.

SIMILARLY: Don't use THE with states, provinces, and cities unless THE is specifically part of the name or contains a word such as "Territory" or "Coast".

• He lives in California.
• Ladakh is in India.
• The Northwest Territories is a province in Canada.

EXCEPTIONS: THE is used with "the Netherlands" as well as with many nations which are island chains, such as "the Philippines", "the Maldives", "the Bahamas", etc. Additionally, in the past, THE was used with certain countries such as "the Sudan", "the Gambia", and "the Congo"; this usage is becoming less common.

• He lives in the Netherlands.
• I visited the Bahamas last year.

Article with time expressions –

Time expressions can be especially confusing. THE is used in some time expressions such as:

• in the morning
• in the afternoon
• in the evening
• during the night
• during the day
• the day before yesterday
• the day after tomorrow
• the fall
• the summer
• We'll meet in the afternoon.
• Jake loves to go camping in the fall.
• There was a small earthquake during the night.

HOWEVER: In other time expressions, no article is used:

• at night
• at noon
• at midnight
• all day
• all night
• all month
• every month
• every year
• last night
• last Friday
• yesterday
• tomorrow
• Did you sleep well last night?
• I'll see you tomorrow.
• We are meeting for lunch at noon.

MOREOVER: There are some expressions which can take both A(AN) and THE such as:

• a/the whole day
• a/the whole month
• an/the entire year
• an/the entire decade

A list where articles are not used generally –

• No article before plural countable general use of noun
• No article before non-countable general use
• No article before the name of lakes and waterfall, but ‘the’ before the name of oceans, seas, and river.
• No article before a single mountain name, use ‘the’ before the mountain range
• No article before the name of a holiday.
• No article generally for illness with exception
• No article with direction with exception
• No article before the country with exception
• No article before the language with exception

TABLE -                                    

Use THE with the names of:	Do not use an article with:
oceans	individual lakes
seas	individual islands
coasts	beaches
rivers	waterfalls
swamps	individual mountains (except the Matterhorn)
archipelagos	canyons (except the Grand Canyon)
collections of lakes (such as the Great Lakes)	people's first names
mountain chains	streets (except the High Street)
deserts	public squares
references on the globe (such as the Equator, the North Pole)	hospitals
geographic regions (such as the Northwest, the Middle East)	stadiums
bridges (except Tower Bridge)	malls
pagodas	parks
hotels	churches
theaters	temples
museums	universities
institutes	colleges
skyscrapers	languages
the Sun, the Moon	religions
extraordinary works of art or architecture (such as the Mona Lisa, the Colosseum, the Great Wall of China, and the Taj Mahal)	Days, Months, Holidays

Practice and examples (To be added regularly)  -

'Storm' is countable, never seen a plural use of storm.